The life and tragic destiny of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt
From romantic relationships with the most powerful men of her era to the political acumen with which she maintained control of her realm, Cleopatra has fascinated us since ancient times. Nevertheless, certain parts of this fabulous Egyptian queen’s story remain unclear as legend occasionally overshadows historical fact. Here’s a recap of both established fact and as-yet unanswered questions.
Dynasty
Birth
Cleopatra, known in full as CleopatraVII Thea Philopator, was born around 69 BCE in Alexandria, Egypt’s then-capital city, to Pharaoh Ptolemy XII and an unidentified concubine. While her ancestry was Greek and Macedonian through her father, she could also have had Egyptian blood.
Dynasty![]()
Cleopatra belonged to the Ptolemies (also called Lagides), a dynasty founded by Alexander the Great. Under their reign, Egypt served as an intellectual beacon with Alexandria as the cultural capital of the Mediterranean. The realm weakened politically, however, and lost numerous territories over time. In fact, Cleopatra’s childhood was marked by external political crises and internal conflict.
Education
Cleopatra received an exceptional education, learning to speak several languages, including Egyptian. Making the most of her Egyptian and Greek cultures, Cleopatra took “Philopater,” meaning “father-loving,” as a surname. She also immersed herself in her homeland’s religion, essentially reviving the Egyptian pantheon.
First rise to power
First rise to power![]()
Cleopatra was named successor to her father’s throne at age 16. Then, upon his death in 51 BCE, she reigned alongside her younger brother/husband. According to their father’s will, their reign was placed under Roman supervision, protecting Egypt’s status as the sole independent state in the Mediterranean basin.
Fratricidal war
Fratricidal war
Dissension broke out between brother and sister, and the 13-year-old king’s advisors sparked an uprising in Alexandria. Cleopatra was accused of conspiracy and, feeling her life threatened, fled to Syria for protection. She only regained power with help from Julius Caesar.
Seduction of Julius Caesar
The meeting between Cleopatra and Caesar in 48 BCE has since taken on mythical aspects. According to legend, the young woman returned secretly to Alexandria and managed to get close to him by hiding in a carpet. The aging general was enchanted and agreed to help her reclaim the throne. To further impress him, Cleopatra organized a national tour, and it worked, both politically and emotionally.
Vital Roman alliance
Vital Roman alliance
Far from betraying her country by seeking favours from Caesar and planning an alliance with Rome, Cleopatra was actually implementing a well-thought-out political strategy. She needed such an alliance to keep her throne, retake the eastern Mediterranean region lost by her ancestors, and maintain authority over her realm in the face of Roman power.
Heir to Rome and Egypt
Caesar and Cleopatra had a son named Caesarion (pictured). Viewing him as key to the alliance between her country and Rome, the pharaoh placed him on the throne as co-ruler, under the name Ptolemy XV, following the death of her last brother. Caesar’s refusal, however, to officially recognize him as his heir enabled his successors to contest the legitimacy of Ptolemy XV’s power.
Visit to Rome
Visit to Rome
At age 23, the Egyptian queen made a triumphant visit to Rome. Caesar showered her with honours to the displeasure of some Romans. Cleopatra then spent two years in Rome and was there when her lover was assassinated in 44 BCE, after which she fled to Egypt with her young son.
Meeting with Mark Antony
After Caesar’s death, Mark Antony took control of eastern Rome. In 41 BCE, he and Cleopatra met in Tarsus on the coast of present-day Turkey. The pharaoh staged an astonishing setting for their encounter. They agreed on the need to collaborate as Rome succumbed to a civil war. Whether by reason of political necessity or passionate love, their names will be forever linked.
Marriage to Mark Antony
Shortly after meeting Cleopatra, Mark Antony (pictured) was pressured into a political marriage to Octavia, the sister of his rival Octavian. He eventually divorced her and married Cleopatra, with whom he had three children: twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene followed by Ptolemy Philadelphus. The couple bestowed royal titles and conquered lands upon their offspring.
Cult dedicated to Cleopatra
Cult dedicated to Cleopatra![]()
Pharaohs have always enjoyed divine status, and Cleopatra was no exception. She connected herself with worship of the goddess Isis (pictured) and considered herself an earthly incarnation of the deity. Furthermore, the god Amon was said to have taken Caesar’s form when her oldest son was conceived. Finally, in marrying Cleopatra, Mark Antony also took on a divine nature, unprecedented for someone from the Roman Republic.
Queen of kings
Mark Antony proclaimed his Egyptian wife the “queen of kings” and Caesarion the “king of kings,” thus solidifying their position on the throne. He also offered them lands in exchange for use of the Egyptian army. Antony’s actions provoked anger and indignation in Rome and precipitated conflict with Octavian.
Defeat at Actium
Troubled by their growing influence and Caesarion’s possible nomination as Caesar’s heir, Octavian confronted Cleopatra and Mark Antony’s troops in a naval battle at Actium, inflicting a scathing defeat. After the royal couple fled to Alexandria, their abandoned armies surrendered to Octavian.
Death
Octavian landed in Alexandria in 30 BCE, subduing all resistance. Sources differ on subsequent events. Mark Antony committed suicide, perhaps believing Cleopatra had betrayed him. Twelve days later, she also took her own life. The most popular version of events reports that Cleopatra allowed a poisonous snake (asp) to bite her. She was 39 years old.
Was Cleopatra assassinated?
Was Cleopatra assassinated?![]()
Like other elements of Cleopatra’s biography, circumstances surrounding her death are somewhat mysterious and mythical accounts have sparked disagreement. Many historians favour the theory of death by poison rather than snakebite. Some think that Octavian ordered her to commit suicide, while others believe the pharaoh would have never given in and must have been murdered.
Where is Cleopatra buried?
In contrast to many ancient funerary monuments, Cleopatra’s tomb has never been found and its location continues to puzzle archaeologists. The recent discovery of a rock tunnel beneath a temple near Alexandria has revived hopes of finding her grave. Some, however, suspect that it has been swallowed up by the sea and lost forever. According to legend, Mark Antony and Cleopatra were buried together.
Was Cleopatra really a stateswoman?
Was Cleopatra really a stateswoman?![]()
History is written by the victors, and we have Octavian’s propaganda to thank for Cleopatra’s posthumous reputation as an immoral seductress rather than a skilled politician. In reality, this pharaoh never lost sight of her political objective to re-establish the grandeur of her realm. What’s more, Egyptian history, unlike elsewhere in the ancient world, had provided Cleopatra with examples of powerful stateswomen.
Was Cleopatra extraordinarily beautiful?
Was Cleopatra extraordinarily beautiful?
Cleopatra’s reputation as a fabulous seductress has inspired speculation on her appearance for centuries. Indeed, paintings and films have since immortalized Cleopatra’s legendary beauty. However, the most faithful representation of her is probably a bust conserved in Berlin (pictured), revealing a rather banal physical appearance. Historians write, in fact, that she must have charmed with her intelligence and conversation.
What was Cleopatra’s legacy?
What was Cleopatra’s legacy?![]()
